-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 59
/
ch02-git-basics.html
2429 lines (2364 loc) · 125 KB
/
ch02-git-basics.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<meta name="generator" content="Asciidoctor 2.0.10">
<title>Git Basics</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Open+Sans:300,300italic,400,400italic,600,600italic%7CNoto+Serif:400,400italic,700,700italic%7CDroid+Sans+Mono:400,700">
<style>
/* Asciidoctor default stylesheet | MIT License | https://asciidoctor.org */
/* Uncomment @import statement to use as custom stylesheet */
/*@import "https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Open+Sans:300,300italic,400,400italic,600,600italic%7CNoto+Serif:400,400italic,700,700italic%7CDroid+Sans+Mono:400,700";*/
article,aside,details,figcaption,figure,footer,header,hgroup,main,nav,section{display:block}
audio,video{display:inline-block}
audio:not([controls]){display:none;height:0}
html{font-family:sans-serif;-ms-text-size-adjust:100%;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%}
a{background:none}
a:focus{outline:thin dotted}
a:active,a:hover{outline:0}
h1{font-size:2em;margin:.67em 0}
abbr[title]{border-bottom:1px dotted}
b,strong{font-weight:bold}
dfn{font-style:italic}
hr{-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box;height:0}
mark{background:#ff0;color:#000}
code,kbd,pre,samp{font-family:monospace;font-size:1em}
pre{white-space:pre-wrap}
q{quotes:"\201C" "\201D" "\2018" "\2019"}
small{font-size:80%}
sub,sup{font-size:75%;line-height:0;position:relative;vertical-align:baseline}
sup{top:-.5em}
sub{bottom:-.25em}
img{border:0}
svg:not(:root){overflow:hidden}
figure{margin:0}
fieldset{border:1px solid silver;margin:0 2px;padding:.35em .625em .75em}
legend{border:0;padding:0}
button,input,select,textarea{font-family:inherit;font-size:100%;margin:0}
button,input{line-height:normal}
button,select{text-transform:none}
button,html input[type="button"],input[type="reset"],input[type="submit"]{-webkit-appearance:button;cursor:pointer}
button[disabled],html input[disabled]{cursor:default}
input[type="checkbox"],input[type="radio"]{box-sizing:border-box;padding:0}
button::-moz-focus-inner,input::-moz-focus-inner{border:0;padding:0}
textarea{overflow:auto;vertical-align:top}
table{border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0}
*,*::before,*::after{-moz-box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-box-sizing:border-box;box-sizing:border-box}
html,body{font-size:100%}
body{background:#fff;color:rgba(0,0,0,.8);padding:0;margin:0;font-family:"Noto Serif","DejaVu Serif",serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;line-height:1;position:relative;cursor:auto;tab-size:4;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}
a:hover{cursor:pointer}
img,object,embed{max-width:100%;height:auto}
object,embed{height:100%}
img{-ms-interpolation-mode:bicubic}
.left{float:left!important}
.right{float:right!important}
.text-left{text-align:left!important}
.text-right{text-align:right!important}
.text-center{text-align:center!important}
.text-justify{text-align:justify!important}
.hide{display:none}
img,object,svg{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}
textarea{height:auto;min-height:50px}
select{width:100%}
.center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}
.stretch{width:100%}
.subheader,.admonitionblock td.content>.title,.audioblock>.title,.exampleblock>.title,.imageblock>.title,.listingblock>.title,.literalblock>.title,.stemblock>.title,.openblock>.title,.paragraph>.title,.quoteblock>.title,table.tableblock>.title,.verseblock>.title,.videoblock>.title,.dlist>.title,.olist>.title,.ulist>.title,.qlist>.title,.hdlist>.title{line-height:1.45;color:#7a2518;font-weight:400;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:.25em}
div,dl,dt,dd,ul,ol,li,h1,h2,h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title,h4,h5,h6,pre,form,p,blockquote,th,td{margin:0;padding:0;direction:ltr}
a{color:#2156a5;text-decoration:underline;line-height:inherit}
a:hover,a:focus{color:#1d4b8f}
a img{border:0}
p{font-family:inherit;font-weight:400;font-size:1em;line-height:1.6;margin-bottom:1.25em;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility}
p aside{font-size:.875em;line-height:1.35;font-style:italic}
h1,h2,h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title,h4,h5,h6{font-family:"Open Sans","DejaVu Sans",sans-serif;font-weight:300;font-style:normal;color:#ba3925;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;margin-top:1em;margin-bottom:.5em;line-height:1.0125em}
h1 small,h2 small,h3 small,#toctitle small,.sidebarblock>.content>.title small,h4 small,h5 small,h6 small{font-size:60%;color:#e99b8f;line-height:0}
h1{font-size:2.125em}
h2{font-size:1.6875em}
h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title{font-size:1.375em}
h4,h5{font-size:1.125em}
h6{font-size:1em}
hr{border:solid #dddddf;border-width:1px 0 0;clear:both;margin:1.25em 0 1.1875em;height:0}
em,i{font-style:italic;line-height:inherit}
strong,b{font-weight:bold;line-height:inherit}
small{font-size:60%;line-height:inherit}
code{font-family:"Droid Sans Mono","DejaVu Sans Mono",monospace;font-weight:400;color:rgba(0,0,0,.9)}
ul,ol,dl{font-size:1em;line-height:1.6;margin-bottom:1.25em;list-style-position:outside;font-family:inherit}
ul,ol{margin-left:1.5em}
ul li ul,ul li ol{margin-left:1.25em;margin-bottom:0;font-size:1em}
ul.square li ul,ul.circle li ul,ul.disc li ul{list-style:inherit}
ul.square{list-style-type:square}
ul.circle{list-style-type:circle}
ul.disc{list-style-type:disc}
ol li ul,ol li ol{margin-left:1.25em;margin-bottom:0}
dl dt{margin-bottom:.3125em;font-weight:bold}
dl dd{margin-bottom:1.25em}
abbr,acronym{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:90%;color:rgba(0,0,0,.8);border-bottom:1px dotted #ddd;cursor:help}
abbr{text-transform:none}
blockquote{margin:0 0 1.25em;padding:.5625em 1.25em 0 1.1875em;border-left:1px solid #ddd}
blockquote cite{display:block;font-size:.9375em;color:rgba(0,0,0,.6)}
blockquote cite::before{content:"\2014 \0020"}
blockquote cite a,blockquote cite a:visited{color:rgba(0,0,0,.6)}
blockquote,blockquote p{line-height:1.6;color:rgba(0,0,0,.85)}
@media screen and (min-width:768px){h1,h2,h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title,h4,h5,h6{line-height:1.2}
h1{font-size:2.75em}
h2{font-size:2.3125em}
h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title{font-size:1.6875em}
h4{font-size:1.4375em}}
table{background:#fff;margin-bottom:1.25em;border:solid 1px #dedede}
table thead,table tfoot{background:#f7f8f7}
table thead tr th,table thead tr td,table tfoot tr th,table tfoot tr td{padding:.5em .625em .625em;font-size:inherit;color:rgba(0,0,0,.8);text-align:left}
table tr th,table tr td{padding:.5625em .625em;font-size:inherit;color:rgba(0,0,0,.8)}
table tr.even,table tr.alt{background:#f8f8f7}
table thead tr th,table tfoot tr th,table tbody tr td,table tr td,table tfoot tr td{display:table-cell;line-height:1.6}
h1,h2,h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title,h4,h5,h6{line-height:1.2;word-spacing:-.05em}
h1 strong,h2 strong,h3 strong,#toctitle strong,.sidebarblock>.content>.title strong,h4 strong,h5 strong,h6 strong{font-weight:400}
.clearfix::before,.clearfix::after,.float-group::before,.float-group::after{content:" ";display:table}
.clearfix::after,.float-group::after{clear:both}
:not(pre):not([class^=L])>code{font-size:.9375em;font-style:normal!important;letter-spacing:0;padding:.1em .5ex;word-spacing:-.15em;background:#f7f7f8;-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px;line-height:1.45;text-rendering:optimizeSpeed;word-wrap:break-word}
:not(pre)>code.nobreak{word-wrap:normal}
:not(pre)>code.nowrap{white-space:nowrap}
pre{color:rgba(0,0,0,.9);font-family:"Droid Sans Mono","DejaVu Sans Mono",monospace;line-height:1.45;text-rendering:optimizeSpeed}
pre code,pre pre{color:inherit;font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit}
pre>code{display:block}
pre.nowrap,pre.nowrap pre{white-space:pre;word-wrap:normal}
em em{font-style:normal}
strong strong{font-weight:400}
.keyseq{color:rgba(51,51,51,.8)}
kbd{font-family:"Droid Sans Mono","DejaVu Sans Mono",monospace;display:inline-block;color:rgba(0,0,0,.8);font-size:.65em;line-height:1.45;background:#f7f7f7;border:1px solid #ccc;-webkit-border-radius:3px;border-radius:3px;-webkit-box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.2),0 0 0 .1em white inset;box-shadow:0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,.2),0 0 0 .1em #fff inset;margin:0 .15em;padding:.2em .5em;vertical-align:middle;position:relative;top:-.1em;white-space:nowrap}
.keyseq kbd:first-child{margin-left:0}
.keyseq kbd:last-child{margin-right:0}
.menuseq,.menuref{color:#000}
.menuseq b:not(.caret),.menuref{font-weight:inherit}
.menuseq{word-spacing:-.02em}
.menuseq b.caret{font-size:1.25em;line-height:.8}
.menuseq i.caret{font-weight:bold;text-align:center;width:.45em}
b.button::before,b.button::after{position:relative;top:-1px;font-weight:400}
b.button::before{content:"[";padding:0 3px 0 2px}
b.button::after{content:"]";padding:0 2px 0 3px}
p a>code:hover{color:rgba(0,0,0,.9)}
#header,#content,#footnotes,#footer{width:100%;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0;max-width:62.5em;*zoom:1;position:relative;padding-left:.9375em;padding-right:.9375em}
#header::before,#header::after,#content::before,#content::after,#footnotes::before,#footnotes::after,#footer::before,#footer::after{content:" ";display:table}
#header::after,#content::after,#footnotes::after,#footer::after{clear:both}
#content{margin-top:1.25em}
#content::before{content:none}
#header>h1:first-child{color:rgba(0,0,0,.85);margin-top:2.25rem;margin-bottom:0}
#header>h1:first-child+#toc{margin-top:8px;border-top:1px solid #dddddf}
#header>h1:only-child,body.toc2 #header>h1:nth-last-child(2){border-bottom:1px solid #dddddf;padding-bottom:8px}
#header .details{border-bottom:1px solid #dddddf;line-height:1.45;padding-top:.25em;padding-bottom:.25em;padding-left:.25em;color:rgba(0,0,0,.6);display:-ms-flexbox;display:-webkit-flex;display:flex;-ms-flex-flow:row wrap;-webkit-flex-flow:row wrap;flex-flow:row wrap}
#header .details span:first-child{margin-left:-.125em}
#header .details span.email a{color:rgba(0,0,0,.85)}
#header .details br{display:none}
#header .details br+span::before{content:"\00a0\2013\00a0"}
#header .details br+span.author::before{content:"\00a0\22c5\00a0";color:rgba(0,0,0,.85)}
#header .details br+span#revremark::before{content:"\00a0|\00a0"}
#header #revnumber{text-transform:capitalize}
#header #revnumber::after{content:"\00a0"}
#content>h1:first-child:not([class]){color:rgba(0,0,0,.85);border-bottom:1px solid #dddddf;padding-bottom:8px;margin-top:0;padding-top:1rem;margin-bottom:1.25rem}
#toc{border-bottom:1px solid #e7e7e9;padding-bottom:.5em}
#toc>ul{margin-left:.125em}
#toc ul.sectlevel0>li>a{font-style:italic}
#toc ul.sectlevel0 ul.sectlevel1{margin:.5em 0}
#toc ul{font-family:"Open Sans","DejaVu Sans",sans-serif;list-style-type:none}
#toc li{line-height:1.3334;margin-top:.3334em}
#toc a{text-decoration:none}
#toc a:active{text-decoration:underline}
#toctitle{color:#7a2518;font-size:1.2em}
@media screen and (min-width:768px){#toctitle{font-size:1.375em}
body.toc2{padding-left:15em;padding-right:0}
#toc.toc2{margin-top:0!important;background:#f8f8f7;position:fixed;width:15em;left:0;top:0;border-right:1px solid #e7e7e9;border-top-width:0!important;border-bottom-width:0!important;z-index:1000;padding:1.25em 1em;height:100%;overflow:auto}
#toc.toc2 #toctitle{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:.8rem;font-size:1.2em}
#toc.toc2>ul{font-size:.9em;margin-bottom:0}
#toc.toc2 ul ul{margin-left:0;padding-left:1em}
#toc.toc2 ul.sectlevel0 ul.sectlevel1{padding-left:0;margin-top:.5em;margin-bottom:.5em}
body.toc2.toc-right{padding-left:0;padding-right:15em}
body.toc2.toc-right #toc.toc2{border-right-width:0;border-left:1px solid #e7e7e9;left:auto;right:0}}
@media screen and (min-width:1280px){body.toc2{padding-left:20em;padding-right:0}
#toc.toc2{width:20em}
#toc.toc2 #toctitle{font-size:1.375em}
#toc.toc2>ul{font-size:.95em}
#toc.toc2 ul ul{padding-left:1.25em}
body.toc2.toc-right{padding-left:0;padding-right:20em}}
#content #toc{border-style:solid;border-width:1px;border-color:#e0e0dc;margin-bottom:1.25em;padding:1.25em;background:#f8f8f7;-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px}
#content #toc>:first-child{margin-top:0}
#content #toc>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
#footer{max-width:100%;background:rgba(0,0,0,.8);padding:1.25em}
#footer-text{color:rgba(255,255,255,.8);line-height:1.44}
#content{margin-bottom:.625em}
.sect1{padding-bottom:.625em}
@media screen and (min-width:768px){#content{margin-bottom:1.25em}
.sect1{padding-bottom:1.25em}}
.sect1:last-child{padding-bottom:0}
.sect1+.sect1{border-top:1px solid #e7e7e9}
#content h1>a.anchor,h2>a.anchor,h3>a.anchor,#toctitle>a.anchor,.sidebarblock>.content>.title>a.anchor,h4>a.anchor,h5>a.anchor,h6>a.anchor{position:absolute;z-index:1001;width:1.5ex;margin-left:-1.5ex;display:block;text-decoration:none!important;visibility:hidden;text-align:center;font-weight:400}
#content h1>a.anchor::before,h2>a.anchor::before,h3>a.anchor::before,#toctitle>a.anchor::before,.sidebarblock>.content>.title>a.anchor::before,h4>a.anchor::before,h5>a.anchor::before,h6>a.anchor::before{content:"\00A7";font-size:.85em;display:block;padding-top:.1em}
#content h1:hover>a.anchor,#content h1>a.anchor:hover,h2:hover>a.anchor,h2>a.anchor:hover,h3:hover>a.anchor,#toctitle:hover>a.anchor,.sidebarblock>.content>.title:hover>a.anchor,h3>a.anchor:hover,#toctitle>a.anchor:hover,.sidebarblock>.content>.title>a.anchor:hover,h4:hover>a.anchor,h4>a.anchor:hover,h5:hover>a.anchor,h5>a.anchor:hover,h6:hover>a.anchor,h6>a.anchor:hover{visibility:visible}
#content h1>a.link,h2>a.link,h3>a.link,#toctitle>a.link,.sidebarblock>.content>.title>a.link,h4>a.link,h5>a.link,h6>a.link{color:#ba3925;text-decoration:none}
#content h1>a.link:hover,h2>a.link:hover,h3>a.link:hover,#toctitle>a.link:hover,.sidebarblock>.content>.title>a.link:hover,h4>a.link:hover,h5>a.link:hover,h6>a.link:hover{color:#a53221}
details,.audioblock,.imageblock,.literalblock,.listingblock,.stemblock,.videoblock{margin-bottom:1.25em}
details>summary:first-of-type{cursor:pointer;display:list-item;outline:none;margin-bottom:.75em}
.admonitionblock td.content>.title,.audioblock>.title,.exampleblock>.title,.imageblock>.title,.listingblock>.title,.literalblock>.title,.stemblock>.title,.openblock>.title,.paragraph>.title,.quoteblock>.title,table.tableblock>.title,.verseblock>.title,.videoblock>.title,.dlist>.title,.olist>.title,.ulist>.title,.qlist>.title,.hdlist>.title{text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;text-align:left;font-family:"Noto Serif","DejaVu Serif",serif;font-size:1rem;font-style:italic}
table.tableblock.fit-content>caption.title{white-space:nowrap;width:0}
.paragraph.lead>p,#preamble>.sectionbody>[class="paragraph"]:first-of-type p{font-size:1.21875em;line-height:1.6;color:rgba(0,0,0,.85)}
table.tableblock #preamble>.sectionbody>[class="paragraph"]:first-of-type p{font-size:inherit}
.admonitionblock>table{border-collapse:separate;border:0;background:none;width:100%}
.admonitionblock>table td.icon{text-align:center;width:80px}
.admonitionblock>table td.icon img{max-width:none}
.admonitionblock>table td.icon .title{font-weight:bold;font-family:"Open Sans","DejaVu Sans",sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase}
.admonitionblock>table td.content{padding-left:1.125em;padding-right:1.25em;border-left:1px solid #dddddf;color:rgba(0,0,0,.6)}
.admonitionblock>table td.content>:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
.exampleblock>.content{border-style:solid;border-width:1px;border-color:#e6e6e6;margin-bottom:1.25em;padding:1.25em;background:#fff;-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px}
.exampleblock>.content>:first-child{margin-top:0}
.exampleblock>.content>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
.sidebarblock{border-style:solid;border-width:1px;border-color:#dbdbd6;margin-bottom:1.25em;padding:1.25em;background:#f3f3f2;-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px}
.sidebarblock>:first-child{margin-top:0}
.sidebarblock>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
.sidebarblock>.content>.title{color:#7a2518;margin-top:0;text-align:center}
.exampleblock>.content>:last-child>:last-child,.exampleblock>.content .olist>ol>li:last-child>:last-child,.exampleblock>.content .ulist>ul>li:last-child>:last-child,.exampleblock>.content .qlist>ol>li:last-child>:last-child,.sidebarblock>.content>:last-child>:last-child,.sidebarblock>.content .olist>ol>li:last-child>:last-child,.sidebarblock>.content .ulist>ul>li:last-child>:last-child,.sidebarblock>.content .qlist>ol>li:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
.literalblock pre,.listingblock>.content>pre{-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px;word-wrap:break-word;overflow-x:auto;padding:1em;font-size:.8125em}
@media screen and (min-width:768px){.literalblock pre,.listingblock>.content>pre{font-size:.90625em}}
@media screen and (min-width:1280px){.literalblock pre,.listingblock>.content>pre{font-size:1em}}
.literalblock pre,.listingblock>.content>pre:not(.highlight),.listingblock>.content>pre[class="highlight"],.listingblock>.content>pre[class^="highlight "]{background:#f7f7f8}
.literalblock.output pre{color:#f7f7f8;background:rgba(0,0,0,.9)}
.listingblock>.content{position:relative}
.listingblock code[data-lang]::before{display:none;content:attr(data-lang);position:absolute;font-size:.75em;top:.425rem;right:.5rem;line-height:1;text-transform:uppercase;color:inherit;opacity:.5}
.listingblock:hover code[data-lang]::before{display:block}
.listingblock.terminal pre .command::before{content:attr(data-prompt);padding-right:.5em;color:inherit;opacity:.5}
.listingblock.terminal pre .command:not([data-prompt])::before{content:"$"}
.listingblock pre.highlightjs{padding:0}
.listingblock pre.highlightjs>code{padding:1em;-webkit-border-radius:4px;border-radius:4px}
.listingblock pre.prettyprint{border-width:0}
.prettyprint{background:#f7f7f8}
pre.prettyprint .linenums{line-height:1.45;margin-left:2em}
pre.prettyprint li{background:none;list-style-type:inherit;padding-left:0}
pre.prettyprint li code[data-lang]::before{opacity:1}
pre.prettyprint li:not(:first-child) code[data-lang]::before{display:none}
table.linenotable{border-collapse:separate;border:0;margin-bottom:0;background:none}
table.linenotable td[class]{color:inherit;vertical-align:top;padding:0;line-height:inherit;white-space:normal}
table.linenotable td.code{padding-left:.75em}
table.linenotable td.linenos{border-right:1px solid currentColor;opacity:.35;padding-right:.5em}
pre.pygments .lineno{border-right:1px solid currentColor;opacity:.35;display:inline-block;margin-right:.75em}
pre.pygments .lineno::before{content:"";margin-right:-.125em}
.quoteblock{margin:0 1em 1.25em 1.5em;display:table}
.quoteblock:not(.excerpt)>.title{margin-left:-1.5em;margin-bottom:.75em}
.quoteblock blockquote,.quoteblock p{color:rgba(0,0,0,.85);font-size:1.15rem;line-height:1.75;word-spacing:.1em;letter-spacing:0;font-style:italic;text-align:justify}
.quoteblock blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border:0}
.quoteblock blockquote::before{content:"\201c";float:left;font-size:2.75em;font-weight:bold;line-height:.6em;margin-left:-.6em;color:#7a2518;text-shadow:0 1px 2px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}
.quoteblock blockquote>.paragraph:last-child p{margin-bottom:0}
.quoteblock .attribution{margin-top:.75em;margin-right:.5ex;text-align:right}
.verseblock{margin:0 1em 1.25em}
.verseblock pre{font-family:"Open Sans","DejaVu Sans",sans;font-size:1.15rem;color:rgba(0,0,0,.85);font-weight:300;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility}
.verseblock pre strong{font-weight:400}
.verseblock .attribution{margin-top:1.25rem;margin-left:.5ex}
.quoteblock .attribution,.verseblock .attribution{font-size:.9375em;line-height:1.45;font-style:italic}
.quoteblock .attribution br,.verseblock .attribution br{display:none}
.quoteblock .attribution cite,.verseblock .attribution cite{display:block;letter-spacing:-.025em;color:rgba(0,0,0,.6)}
.quoteblock.abstract blockquote::before,.quoteblock.excerpt blockquote::before,.quoteblock .quoteblock blockquote::before{display:none}
.quoteblock.abstract blockquote,.quoteblock.abstract p,.quoteblock.excerpt blockquote,.quoteblock.excerpt p,.quoteblock .quoteblock blockquote,.quoteblock .quoteblock p{line-height:1.6;word-spacing:0}
.quoteblock.abstract{margin:0 1em 1.25em;display:block}
.quoteblock.abstract>.title{margin:0 0 .375em;font-size:1.15em;text-align:center}
.quoteblock.excerpt>blockquote,.quoteblock .quoteblock{padding:0 0 .25em 1em;border-left:.25em solid #dddddf}
.quoteblock.excerpt,.quoteblock .quoteblock{margin-left:0}
.quoteblock.excerpt blockquote,.quoteblock.excerpt p,.quoteblock .quoteblock blockquote,.quoteblock .quoteblock p{color:inherit;font-size:1.0625rem}
.quoteblock.excerpt .attribution,.quoteblock .quoteblock .attribution{color:inherit;text-align:left;margin-right:0}
table.tableblock{max-width:100%;border-collapse:separate}
p.tableblock:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
td.tableblock>.content>:last-child{margin-bottom:-1.25em}
td.tableblock>.content>:last-child.sidebarblock{margin-bottom:0}
table.tableblock,th.tableblock,td.tableblock{border:0 solid #dedede}
table.grid-all>thead>tr>.tableblock,table.grid-all>tbody>tr>.tableblock{border-width:0 1px 1px 0}
table.grid-all>tfoot>tr>.tableblock{border-width:1px 1px 0 0}
table.grid-cols>*>tr>.tableblock{border-width:0 1px 0 0}
table.grid-rows>thead>tr>.tableblock,table.grid-rows>tbody>tr>.tableblock{border-width:0 0 1px}
table.grid-rows>tfoot>tr>.tableblock{border-width:1px 0 0}
table.grid-all>*>tr>.tableblock:last-child,table.grid-cols>*>tr>.tableblock:last-child{border-right-width:0}
table.grid-all>tbody>tr:last-child>.tableblock,table.grid-all>thead:last-child>tr>.tableblock,table.grid-rows>tbody>tr:last-child>.tableblock,table.grid-rows>thead:last-child>tr>.tableblock{border-bottom-width:0}
table.frame-all{border-width:1px}
table.frame-sides{border-width:0 1px}
table.frame-topbot,table.frame-ends{border-width:1px 0}
table.stripes-all tr,table.stripes-odd tr:nth-of-type(odd),table.stripes-even tr:nth-of-type(even),table.stripes-hover tr:hover{background:#f8f8f7}
th.halign-left,td.halign-left{text-align:left}
th.halign-right,td.halign-right{text-align:right}
th.halign-center,td.halign-center{text-align:center}
th.valign-top,td.valign-top{vertical-align:top}
th.valign-bottom,td.valign-bottom{vertical-align:bottom}
th.valign-middle,td.valign-middle{vertical-align:middle}
table thead th,table tfoot th{font-weight:bold}
tbody tr th{display:table-cell;line-height:1.6;background:#f7f8f7}
tbody tr th,tbody tr th p,tfoot tr th,tfoot tr th p{color:rgba(0,0,0,.8);font-weight:bold}
p.tableblock>code:only-child{background:none;padding:0}
p.tableblock{font-size:1em}
ol{margin-left:1.75em}
ul li ol{margin-left:1.5em}
dl dd{margin-left:1.125em}
dl dd:last-child,dl dd:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}
ol>li p,ul>li p,ul dd,ol dd,.olist .olist,.ulist .ulist,.ulist .olist,.olist .ulist{margin-bottom:.625em}
ul.checklist,ul.none,ol.none,ul.no-bullet,ol.no-bullet,ol.unnumbered,ul.unstyled,ol.unstyled{list-style-type:none}
ul.no-bullet,ol.no-bullet,ol.unnumbered{margin-left:.625em}
ul.unstyled,ol.unstyled{margin-left:0}
ul.checklist{margin-left:.625em}
ul.checklist li>p:first-child>.fa-square-o:first-child,ul.checklist li>p:first-child>.fa-check-square-o:first-child{width:1.25em;font-size:.8em;position:relative;bottom:.125em}
ul.checklist li>p:first-child>input[type="checkbox"]:first-child{margin-right:.25em}
ul.inline{display:-ms-flexbox;display:-webkit-box;display:flex;-ms-flex-flow:row wrap;-webkit-flex-flow:row wrap;flex-flow:row wrap;list-style:none;margin:0 0 .625em -1.25em}
ul.inline>li{margin-left:1.25em}
.unstyled dl dt{font-weight:400;font-style:normal}
ol.arabic{list-style-type:decimal}
ol.decimal{list-style-type:decimal-leading-zero}
ol.loweralpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}
ol.upperalpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}
ol.lowerroman{list-style-type:lower-roman}
ol.upperroman{list-style-type:upper-roman}
ol.lowergreek{list-style-type:lower-greek}
.hdlist>table,.colist>table{border:0;background:none}
.hdlist>table>tbody>tr,.colist>table>tbody>tr{background:none}
td.hdlist1,td.hdlist2{vertical-align:top;padding:0 .625em}
td.hdlist1{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:1.25em}
.literalblock+.colist,.listingblock+.colist{margin-top:-.5em}
.colist td:not([class]):first-child{padding:.4em .75em 0;line-height:1;vertical-align:top}
.colist td:not([class]):first-child img{max-width:none}
.colist td:not([class]):last-child{padding:.25em 0}
.thumb,.th{line-height:0;display:inline-block;border:solid 4px #fff;-webkit-box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #ddd;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #ddd}
.imageblock.left{margin:.25em .625em 1.25em 0}
.imageblock.right{margin:.25em 0 1.25em .625em}
.imageblock>.title{margin-bottom:0}
.imageblock.thumb,.imageblock.th{border-width:6px}
.imageblock.thumb>.title,.imageblock.th>.title{padding:0 .125em}
.image.left,.image.right{margin-top:.25em;margin-bottom:.25em;display:inline-block;line-height:0}
.image.left{margin-right:.625em}
.image.right{margin-left:.625em}
a.image{text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}
a.image object{pointer-events:none}
sup.footnote,sup.footnoteref{font-size:.875em;position:static;vertical-align:super}
sup.footnote a,sup.footnoteref a{text-decoration:none}
sup.footnote a:active,sup.footnoteref a:active{text-decoration:underline}
#footnotes{padding-top:.75em;padding-bottom:.75em;margin-bottom:.625em}
#footnotes hr{width:20%;min-width:6.25em;margin:-.25em 0 .75em;border-width:1px 0 0}
#footnotes .footnote{padding:0 .375em 0 .225em;line-height:1.3334;font-size:.875em;margin-left:1.2em;margin-bottom:.2em}
#footnotes .footnote a:first-of-type{font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none;margin-left:-1.05em}
#footnotes .footnote:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}
#content #footnotes{margin-top:-.625em;margin-bottom:0;padding:.75em 0}
.gist .file-data>table{border:0;background:#fff;width:100%;margin-bottom:0}
.gist .file-data>table td.line-data{width:99%}
div.unbreakable{page-break-inside:avoid}
.big{font-size:larger}
.small{font-size:smaller}
.underline{text-decoration:underline}
.overline{text-decoration:overline}
.line-through{text-decoration:line-through}
.aqua{color:#00bfbf}
.aqua-background{background:#00fafa}
.black{color:#000}
.black-background{background:#000}
.blue{color:#0000bf}
.blue-background{background:#0000fa}
.fuchsia{color:#bf00bf}
.fuchsia-background{background:#fa00fa}
.gray{color:#606060}
.gray-background{background:#7d7d7d}
.green{color:#006000}
.green-background{background:#007d00}
.lime{color:#00bf00}
.lime-background{background:#00fa00}
.maroon{color:#600000}
.maroon-background{background:#7d0000}
.navy{color:#000060}
.navy-background{background:#00007d}
.olive{color:#606000}
.olive-background{background:#7d7d00}
.purple{color:#600060}
.purple-background{background:#7d007d}
.red{color:#bf0000}
.red-background{background:#fa0000}
.silver{color:#909090}
.silver-background{background:#bcbcbc}
.teal{color:#006060}
.teal-background{background:#007d7d}
.white{color:#bfbfbf}
.white-background{background:#fafafa}
.yellow{color:#bfbf00}
.yellow-background{background:#fafa00}
span.icon>.fa{cursor:default}
a span.icon>.fa{cursor:inherit}
.admonitionblock td.icon [class^="fa icon-"]{font-size:2.5em;text-shadow:1px 1px 2px rgba(0,0,0,.5);cursor:default}
.admonitionblock td.icon .icon-note::before{content:"\f05a";color:#19407c}
.admonitionblock td.icon .icon-tip::before{content:"\f0eb";text-shadow:1px 1px 2px rgba(155,155,0,.8);color:#111}
.admonitionblock td.icon .icon-warning::before{content:"\f071";color:#bf6900}
.admonitionblock td.icon .icon-caution::before{content:"\f06d";color:#bf3400}
.admonitionblock td.icon .icon-important::before{content:"\f06a";color:#bf0000}
.conum[data-value]{display:inline-block;color:#fff!important;background:rgba(0,0,0,.8);-webkit-border-radius:100px;border-radius:100px;text-align:center;font-size:.75em;width:1.67em;height:1.67em;line-height:1.67em;font-family:"Open Sans","DejaVu Sans",sans-serif;font-style:normal;font-weight:bold}
.conum[data-value] *{color:#fff!important}
.conum[data-value]+b{display:none}
.conum[data-value]::after{content:attr(data-value)}
pre .conum[data-value]{position:relative;top:-.125em}
b.conum *{color:inherit!important}
.conum:not([data-value]):empty{display:none}
dt,th.tableblock,td.content,div.footnote{text-rendering:optimizeLegibility}
h1,h2,p,td.content,span.alt{letter-spacing:-.01em}
p strong,td.content strong,div.footnote strong{letter-spacing:-.005em}
p,blockquote,dt,td.content,span.alt{font-size:1.0625rem}
p{margin-bottom:1.25rem}
.sidebarblock p,.sidebarblock dt,.sidebarblock td.content,p.tableblock{font-size:1em}
.exampleblock>.content{background:#fffef7;border-color:#e0e0dc;-webkit-box-shadow:0 1px 4px #e0e0dc;box-shadow:0 1px 4px #e0e0dc}
.print-only{display:none!important}
@page{margin:1.25cm .75cm}
@media print{*{-webkit-box-shadow:none!important;box-shadow:none!important;text-shadow:none!important}
html{font-size:80%}
a{color:inherit!important;text-decoration:underline!important}
a.bare,a[href^="#"],a[href^="mailto:"]{text-decoration:none!important}
a[href^="http:"]:not(.bare)::after,a[href^="https:"]:not(.bare)::after{content:"(" attr(href) ")";display:inline-block;font-size:.875em;padding-left:.25em}
abbr[title]::after{content:" (" attr(title) ")"}
pre,blockquote,tr,img,object,svg{page-break-inside:avoid}
thead{display:table-header-group}
svg{max-width:100%}
p,blockquote,dt,td.content{font-size:1em;orphans:3;widows:3}
h2,h3,#toctitle,.sidebarblock>.content>.title{page-break-after:avoid}
#toc,.sidebarblock,.exampleblock>.content{background:none!important}
#toc{border-bottom:1px solid #dddddf!important;padding-bottom:0!important}
body.book #header{text-align:center}
body.book #header>h1:first-child{border:0!important;margin:2.5em 0 1em}
body.book #header .details{border:0!important;display:block;padding:0!important}
body.book #header .details span:first-child{margin-left:0!important}
body.book #header .details br{display:block}
body.book #header .details br+span::before{content:none!important}
body.book #toc{border:0!important;text-align:left!important;padding:0!important;margin:0!important}
body.book #toc,body.book #preamble,body.book h1.sect0,body.book .sect1>h2{page-break-before:always}
.listingblock code[data-lang]::before{display:block}
#footer{padding:0 .9375em}
.hide-on-print{display:none!important}
.print-only{display:block!important}
.hide-for-print{display:none!important}
.show-for-print{display:inherit!important}}
@media print,amzn-kf8{#header>h1:first-child{margin-top:1.25rem}
.sect1{padding:0!important}
.sect1+.sect1{border:0}
#footer{background:none}
#footer-text{color:rgba(0,0,0,.6);font-size:.9em}}
@media amzn-kf8{#header,#content,#footnotes,#footer{padding:0}}
</style>
</head>
<body class="article">
<div id="header">
</div>
<div id="content">
<div class="sect1">
<h2 id="r_git_basics_chapter">Git Basics</h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Se você pode ler apenas um capítulo antes de começar a usar o Git, este é ele.
Este capítulo cobre cada comando básico que você precisa para fazer a maior parte das coisas com as quais eventualmente você vai se deparar durante seu uso do Git.
No final deste capítulo, você será capaz de configurar e inicializar um repositório, iniciar e interromper o rastreamento de arquivos, usar a área de <strong>stage</strong> e realizar <strong>commits</strong> das alterações.
Também mostraremos como configurar o Git para ignorar certos arquivos e padrões de arquivo, como desfazer erros de maneira rápida e fácil, como navegar no histórico do seu projeto e visualizar alterações entre <strong>commits</strong> e como fazer <strong>push</strong> e <strong>pull</strong> em repositórios remotos.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="r_getting_a_repo">Obtendo um Repositório Git</h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Você pode obter um projeto Git utilizando duas formas principais.
A primeira faz uso de um projeto ou diretório existente e o importa para o Git.
A segunda clona um repositório Git existente a partir de outro servidor.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_inicializando_um_repositório_em_um_diretório_existente">Inicializando um Repositório em um Diretório Existente</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Para você começar a monitorar um projeto existente com Git, você deve ir para o diretório desse projeto. Se você nunca fez isso, use o comando a seguir, que terá uma pequena diferença dependendo do sistema em que está executando:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Linux:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /home/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Mac:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /Users/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>para Windows:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cd /c/user/your_repository</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>depois digite:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git init</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Isso cria um novo subdiretório chamado <code>.git</code> que contém todos os arquivos necessários de seu repositório – um esqueleto de repositório Git.
Neste ponto, nada em seu projeto é monitorado ainda.
(Veja <a href="ch10-git-internals.html#ch10-git-internals">ch10-git-internals.html</a> para mais informações sobre quais arquivos estão contidos no diretório <code>.git</code> que foi criado.)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Se você quer começar a controlar o versionamento dos arquivos existentes (ao contrário de um diretório vazio), você provavelmente deve começar a monitorar esses arquivos e fazer um <em>commit</em> inicial.
Você pode fazer isso com alguns comandos <code>git add</code> que especificam os arquivos que você quer monitorar, seguido de um <code>git commit</code>:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add *.c
$ git add LICENSE
$ git commit -m 'initial project version'</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Nós já veremos o que esses comandos fazem.
Mas neste ponto você já tem um repositório Git com arquivos monitorados e um <em>commit</em> inicial.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_git_cloning">Clonando um Repositório Existente</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Caso você queira obter a cópia de um repositório Git existente – por exemplo, um projeto que você queira contribuir – o comando para isso é <code>git clone</code>.
Se você estiver familiarizado com outros sistemas VCS, tal como Subversion, você vai notar que o comando é <code>clone</code> e não <code>checkout</code>.
Essa é uma diferença importante – em vez de receber apenas uma cópia para trabalho, o Git recebe uma cópia completa de praticamente todos os dados que o servidor possui.
Cada versão de cada arquivo no histórico do projeto é obtida por padrão quando você executa <code>git clone</code>.
De fato, se o disco do servidor ficar corrompido, em geral você pode usar qualquer uma das cópias de qualquer um dos clientes para reverter o servidor ao estado em que estava quando foi clonado (talvez você perca algumas configurações do servidor, mas todos os dados versionados estarão lá — veja <a href="ch04-git-server.html#r_git_on_the_server">ch04-git-server.html</a> para mais detalhes).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Você clona um repositório com <code>git clone [url]</code>.
Por exemplo, caso você queria clonar a biblioteca Git Linkable chamada libgit2, você pode fazer da seguinte forma:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git clone https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Isso cria um diretório chamado <code>libgit2</code>, inicializa um diretório <code>.git</code> dentro dele, recebe todos os dados deste repositório e deixa disponível para trabalho a cópia da última versão.
Se você entrar no novo diretório <code>libgit2</code>, você verá os arquivos do projeto nele, pronto para serem editados ou utilizados.
Caso você queira clonar o repositório em um diretório diferente de <code>libgit2</code>, é possível especificar esse diretório utilizando a opção abaixo:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git clone https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2 mylibgit</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Este comando faz exatamente a mesma coisa que o anterior, mas o diretório de destino será chamado <code>mylibgit</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>O Git possui diversos protocolos de transferência que você pode utilizar.
O exemplo anterior usa o protocolo <code>https://</code>, mas você também pode ver <code>git://</code> ou <code>user@server:path/to/repo.git</code>, que usam o protocolo de transferência SSH.
O <a href="ch04-git-server.html#r_git_on_the_server">ch04-git-server.html</a> vai apresentar todas as opções disponíveis com as quais o servidor pode ser configurado para acessar o seu repositório Git, e os prós e contras de cada uma.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2">
<h3 id="_recording_changes_to_the_repository">Recording Changes to the Repository</h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You have a bona fide Git repository and a checkout or working copy of the files for that project.
You need to make some changes and commit snapshots of those changes into your repository each time the project reaches a state you want to record.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Remember that each file in your working directory can be in one of two states: tracked or untracked.
Tracked files are files that were in the last snapshot; they can be unmodified, modified, or staged.
Untracked files are everything else – any files in your working directory that were not in your last snapshot and are not in your staging area.
When you first clone a repository, all of your files will be tracked and unmodified because Git just checked them out and you haven’t edited anything.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>As you edit files, Git sees them as modified, because you’ve changed them since your last commit.
You stage these modified files and then commit all your staged changes, and the cycle repeats.</p>
</div>
<div class="imageblock">
<div class="content">
<img src="images/lifecycle.png" alt="The lifecycle of the status of your files.">
</div>
<div class="title">Figure 1. The lifecycle of the status of your files.</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_checking_status">Checking the Status of Your Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The main tool you use to determine which files are in which state is the <code>git status</code> command.
If you run this command directly after a clone, you should see something like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
nothing to commit, working directory clean</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>This means you have a clean working directory – in other words, none of your tracked files are modified.
Git also doesn’t see any untracked files, or they would be listed here.
Finally, the command tells you which branch you’re on and informs you that it has not diverged from the same branch on the server.
For now, that branch is always ``master'', which is the default; you won’t worry about it here.
<a href="ch03-git-branching.html#ch03-git-branching">ch03-git-branching.html</a> will go over branches and references in detail.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s say you add a new file to your project, a simple README file.
If the file didn’t exist before, and you run <code>git status</code>, you see your untracked file like so:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ echo 'My Project' > README
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Untracked files:
(use "git add <file>..." to include in what will be committed)
README
nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use "git add" to track)</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You can see that your new README file is untracked, because it’s under the ``Untracked files'' heading in your status output.
Untracked basically means that Git sees a file you didn’t have in the previous snapshot (commit); Git won’t start including it in your commit snapshots until you explicitly tell it to do so.
It does this so you don’t accidentally begin including generated binary files or other files that you did not mean to include.
You do want to start including README, so let’s start tracking the file.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_tracking_files">Tracking New Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In order to begin tracking a new file, you use the command <code>git add</code>.
To begin tracking the README file, you can run this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add README</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If you run your status command again, you can see that your README file is now tracked and staged to be committed:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>You can tell that it’s staged because it’s under the <code>`Changes to be committed'' heading.
If you commit at this point, the version of the file at the time you ran `git add</code> is what will be in the historical snapshot.
You may recall that when you ran <code>git init</code> earlier, you then ran <code>git add (files)</code> – that was to begin tracking files in your directory.
The <code>git add</code> command takes a path name for either a file or a directory; if it’s a directory, the command adds all the files in that directory recursively.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_staging_modified_files">Staging Modified Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s change a file that was already tracked.
If you change a previously tracked file called <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> and then run your <code>git status</code> command again, you get something that looks like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file appears under a section named <code>Changes not staged for commit'' – which means that a file that is tracked has been modified in the working directory but not yet staged.
To stage it, you run the <code>git add</code> command.
<code>git add</code> is a multipurpose command – you use it to begin tracking new files, to stage files, and to do other things like marking merge-conflicted files as resolved.
It may be helpful to think of it more as </code>add this content to the next commit'' rather than <code>`add this file to the project''.
Let’s run `git add</code> now to stage the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file, and then run <code>git status</code> again:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Both files are staged and will go into your next commit.
At this point, suppose you remember one little change that you want to make in <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> before you commit it.
You open it again and make that change, and you’re ready to commit.
However, let’s run <code>git status</code> one more time:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ vim CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>What the heck?
Now <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> is listed as both staged <em>and</em> unstaged.
How is that possible?
It turns out that Git stages a file exactly as it is when you run the <code>git add</code> command.
If you commit now, the version of <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> as it was when you last ran the <code>git add</code> command is how it will go into the commit, not the version of the file as it looks in your working directory when you run <code>git commit</code>.
If you modify a file after you run <code>git add</code>, you have to run <code>git add</code> again to stage the latest version of the file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
new file: README
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_short_status">Short Status</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>While the <code>git status</code> output is pretty comprehensive, it’s also quite wordy.
Git also has a short status flag so you can see your changes in a more compact way.
If you run <code>git status -s</code> or <code>git status --short</code> you get a far more simplified output from the command:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status -s
M README
MM Rakefile
A lib/git.rb
M lib/simplegit.rb
?? LICENSE.txt</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>New files that aren’t tracked have a <code>??</code> next to them, new files that have been added to the staging area have an <code>A</code>, modified files have an <code>M</code> and so on.
There are two columns to the output - the left-hand column indicates the status of the staging area and the right-hand column indicates the status of the working tree.
So for example in that output, the <code>README</code> file is modified in the working directory but not yet staged, while the <code>lib/simplegit.rb</code> file is modified and staged.
The <code>Rakefile</code> was modified, staged and then modified again, so there are changes to it that are both staged and unstaged.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_ignoring">Ignoring Files</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Often, you’ll have a class of files that you don’t want Git to automatically add or even show you as being untracked.
These are generally automatically generated files such as log files or files produced by your build system.
In such cases, you can create a file listing patterns to match them named <code>.gitignore</code>.
Here is an example <code>.gitignore</code> file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ cat .gitignore
*.[oa]
*~</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The first line tells Git to ignore any files ending in <code>.o'' or </code>.a'' – object and archive files that may be the product of building your code.
The second line tells Git to ignore all files whose names end with a tilde (<code>~</code>), which is used by many text editors such as Emacs to mark temporary files.
You may also include a log, tmp, or pid directory; automatically generated documentation; and so on.
Setting up a <code>.gitignore</code> file before you get going is generally a good idea so you don’t accidentally commit files that you really don’t want in your Git repository.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The rules for the patterns you can put in the <code>.gitignore</code> file are as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Blank lines or lines starting with <code>#</code> are ignored.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Standard glob patterns work.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can start patterns with a forward slash (<code>/</code>) to avoid recursivity.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can end patterns with a forward slash (<code>/</code>) to specify a directory.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can negate a pattern by starting it with an exclamation point (<code>!</code>).</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Glob patterns are like simplified regular expressions that shells use.
An asterisk (<code><strong></code>) matches zero or more characters; <code>[abc]</code> matches any character inside the brackets (in this case a, b, or c); a question mark (<code>?</code>) matches a single character; and brackets enclosing characters separated by a hyphen (<code>[0-9]</code>) matches any character between them (in this case 0 through 9).
You can also use two asterisks to match nested directories; <code>a/</strong>*/z</code> would match <code>a/z</code>, <code>a/b/z</code>, <code>a/b/c/z</code>, and so on.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Here is another example .gitignore file:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code># no .a files
*.a
# but do track lib.a, even though you're ignoring .a files above
!lib.a
# only ignore the TODO file in the current directory, not subdir/TODO
/TODO
# ignore all files in the build/ directory
build/
# ignore doc/notes.txt, but not doc/server/arch.txt
doc/*.txt
# ignore all .pdf files in the doc/ directory
doc/**/*.pdf</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock tip">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<div class="title">Tip</div>
</td>
<td class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>GitHub maintains a fairly comprehensive list of good <code>.gitignore</code> file examples for dozens of projects and languages at <a href="https://github.com/github/gitignore" class="bare">https://github.com/github/gitignore</a> if you want a starting point for your project.</p>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="r_git_diff_staged">Viewing Your Staged and Unstaged Changes</h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If the <code>git status</code> command is too vague for you – you want to know exactly what you changed, not just which files were changed – you can use the <code>git diff</code> command.
We’ll cover <code>git diff</code> in more detail later, but you’ll probably use it most often to answer these two questions: What have you changed but not yet staged?
And what have you staged that you are about to commit?
Although <code>git status</code> answers those questions very generally by listing the file names, <code>git diff</code> shows you the exact lines added and removed – the patch, as it were.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Let’s say you edit and stage the <code>README</code> file again and then edit the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file without staging it.
If you run your <code>git status</code> command, you once again see something like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
modified: README
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>To see what you’ve changed but not yet staged, type <code>git diff</code> with no other arguments:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 8ebb991..643e24f 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -65,7 +65,8 @@ branch directly, things can get messy.
Please include a nice description of your changes when you submit your PR;
if we have to read the whole diff to figure out why you're contributing
in the first place, you're less likely to get feedback and have your change
-merged in.
+merged in. Also, split your changes into comprehensive chunks if your patch is
+longer than a dozen lines.
If you are starting to work on a particular area, feel free to submit a PR
that highlights your work in progress (and note in the PR title that it's</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>That command compares what is in your working directory with what is in your staging area.
The result tells you the changes you’ve made that you haven’t yet staged.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If you want to see what you’ve staged that will go into your next commit, you can use <code>git diff --staged</code>.
This command compares your staged changes to your last commit:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff --staged
diff --git a/README b/README
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03902a1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+My Project</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>It’s important to note that <code>git diff</code> by itself doesn’t show all changes made since your last commit – only changes that are still unstaged.
This can be confusing, because if you’ve staged all of your changes, <code>git diff</code> will give you no output.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>For another example, if you stage the <code>CONTRIBUTING.md</code> file and then edit it, you can use <code>git diff</code> to see the changes in the file that are staged and the changes that are unstaged.
If our environment looks like this:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git add CONTRIBUTING.md
$ echo '# test line' >> CONTRIBUTING.md
$ git status
On branch master
Your branch is up-to-date with 'origin/master'.
Changes to be committed:
(use "git reset HEAD <file>..." to unstage)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md
Changes not staged for commit:
(use "git add <file>..." to update what will be committed)
(use "git checkout -- <file>..." to discard changes in working directory)
modified: CONTRIBUTING.md</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Now you can use <code>git diff</code> to see what is still unstaged:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 643e24f..87f08c8 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -119,3 +119,4 @@ at the
## Starter Projects
See our [projects list](https://github.com/libgit2/libgit2/blob/development/PROJECTS.md).
+# test line</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>and <code>git diff --cached</code> to see what you’ve staged so far (<code>--staged</code> and <code>--cached</code> are synonyms):</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-console" data-lang="console">$ git diff --cached
diff --git a/CONTRIBUTING.md b/CONTRIBUTING.md
index 8ebb991..643e24f 100644
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -65,7 +65,8 @@ branch directly, things can get messy.
Please include a nice description of your changes when you submit your PR;
if we have to read the whole diff to figure out why you're contributing
in the first place, you're less likely to get feedback and have your change
-merged in.
+merged in. Also, split your changes into comprehensive chunks if your patch is
+longer than a dozen lines.
If you are starting to work on a particular area, feel free to submit a PR
that highlights your work in progress (and note in the PR title that it's</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock note">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<div class="title">Note</div>
</td>
<td class="content">
<div class="title">Git Diff in an External Tool</div>